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Ghost in the machine
The "ghost in the machine" is British philosopher Gilbert Ryle's description of René Descartes' mind-body dualism. The phrase was introduced in Ryle's book ''The Concept of Mind'' (1949)〔''Ryle, Gilbert'', "Descartes' Myth," in The Concept of Mind, Hutchinson, London, 1949〕 to highlight the perceived absurdity of dualist systems like Descartes' where mental activity carries on in parallel to physical action, but where their means of interaction are unknown or, at best, speculative.〔Tanney, Julia ("Gilbert Ryle" ), in ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''; Dec 18, 2007; substantive revision Mon Nov 2, 2009 (accessed Oct. 30, 2012)〕
==Gilbert Ryle==
Gilbert Ryle (1900–76) was a philosopher who lectured at Oxford and who made important contributions to the philosophy of mind and to "ordinary language philosophy". His most important writings include ''Philosophical Arguments'' (1945), ''The Concept of Mind'' (1949), ''Dilemmas'' (1954), ''Plato's Progress'' (1966), and ''On Thinking'' (1979).
Ryle's ''The Concept of Mind'' (1949) is a critique of the notion that the mind is distinct from the body, and a rejection of the theory that mental states are separable from physical states. In this book Ryle refers to the idea of a fundamental distinction between mind and matter as "the ghost in the machine". According to Ryle, the classical theory of mind, or "Cartesian rationalism", makes a basic category mistake, because it attempts to analyze the relation between "mind" and "body" as if they were terms of the same logical category. This confusion of logical categories may be seen in other theories of the relation between mind and matter. For example, the idealist theory of mind makes a basic category mistake by attempting to reduce physical reality to the same status as mental reality, while the materialist theory of mind makes a basic category mistake by attempting to reduce mental reality to the same status as physical reality.〔de Morais Ribeiro, Henrique, ("On the Philosophy of Cognitive Science" ), ''Proceedings of the 20th World Congress of Philosophy'', Boston MA, 10–15 August 1998 (accessed 29 October 2012)〕〔Jones, Roger (2008)("Philosophy of Mind, Introduction to Philosophy since the Enlightenment" ), philosopher.org (accessed Oct. 30, 2012)〕
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